Estimation of radiation-induced health hazards from a "dirty bomb" attack with radiocesium under different assault and rescue conditions

Alexis Rump; Stefan Eder; Cornelius Hermann; Andreas Lamkowski; Patrick Ostheim; Michael Abend; Matthias Port

doi:10.1186/s40779-021-00349-w

Your Location：

Home >

Browse articles >

Estimation of radiation-induced health hazards from a "dirty bomb" attack with radiocesium under different assault and rescue conditions

PERSPECTIVE | Updated：2023-02-28

- Estimation of radiation-induced health hazards from a "dirty bomb" attack with radiocesium under different assault and rescue conditions
- Estimation of radiation-induced health hazards from a "dirty bomb" attack with radiocesium under different assault and rescue conditions
- 解放军医学杂志（英文版） 2022年9卷第1期页码：106-125
- Affiliations：
  
  Bundeswehr Institute of Radiobiology, Neuherberg Str. 11, 80937 Munich, Germany
- Author bio：
  
  * AlexisRump@bundeswehr.org
- Funds：
- DOI：10.1186/s40779-021-00349-w
  中图分类号：
- 纸质出版：2022-02
- Accepted：
Scan QR Code
Estimation of radiation-induced health hazards from a "dirty bomb" attack with radiocesium under different assault and rescue conditions[J]. 解放军医学杂志（英文版）, 2022,9(1):106-125.

Rump et al.: Estimation of radiation-induced health hazards from a "dirty bomb" attack with radiocesium under diferent assault and rescue conditions. Mil Med Res, 2021, 8: 65.
Estimation of radiation-induced health hazards from a "dirty bomb" attack with radiocesium under different assault and rescue conditions[J]. 解放军医学杂志（英文版）, 2022,9(1):106-125. DOI： 10.1186/s40779-021-00349-w.

Rump et al.: Estimation of radiation-induced health hazards from a "dirty bomb" attack with radiocesium under diferent assault and rescue conditions. Mil Med Res, 2021, 8: 65. DOI： 10.1186/s40779-021-00349-w.

摘要

Abstract

In the case of a terrorist attack by a "dirty bomb"

blast injuries

external irradiation and the incorporation of radioactivity are to be expected. Departing from information about the radiological attack scenario with cesium-137 in the U.S. National Scenario Planning Guide

we estimated the radiological doses absorbed. Similar calculations were performed for a smaller plume size and a detonation in a subway. For conditions as described in the U.S. scenario

the committed effective dose amounted to a maximum of 848 mSv

even for very unfavorable conditions. Red bone marrow equivalent doses are insufcient to induce acute radiation sickness (ARS). In the case of a smaller plume size

the ARS threshold may be exceeded in some cases. In a subway bombing

doses are much higher and the occurrence of ARS should be expected. The health hazards from a dirty bomb attack will depend on the location and the explosive device. The derived Haddon matrix indicates that preparing for such an event includes education of all the medical staff about radiation effects

the time lines of radiation damages and the treatment priorities. Further determinants of the outcome include rapid evacuation even from difficult locations

the availability of a specific triage tool to rapidly identify victims at risk for ARS

the availability of an antidote stockpile and dedicated hospital beds to treat seriously irradiated victims.

关键词

Keywords

references

Cottin C , Döhler S . Risk analysis. Modeling, assessment and management of risks with practical examples (Risikoanalyse. Modellierung, Beurteilung und Management von Risiken mit Praxisbeispielen) . 2nd edition . Wiesbaden : Springer Fachmedien ; 2013 .

Freudenberg D . Risikoanalyseansätze, Simulation und irreguläre Kräfte . Military Power Revue der Schweizer Armee . 2011 ; 2 : 11 - 9 .

Martin AE . Securing the Homeland: A risk-cost-benefit analysis of U.S. anti-terrorism expenditures. CMC Senior Theses, Paper 207 ; 2011 . http://schol arship. clare mont. edu/ cmc_ theses/ 207 http://schol arship. clare mont. edu/ cmc_ theses/ 207 . Accessed 15 Nov 2020 .

Arnold JL , Halpern P , Tsai MC , Smithline H . Mass casualty terrorist bombings: A comparison of outcomes by bombing type . Ann Emerg Med . 2004 ; 43 ( 2 ): 263 - 73 .

Nacos BL . Terrorism and counter terrorism: understanding threats and responses in the post 9/11 World . 3rd ed . New York : Penguin Academics ; 2009 .

Jenkins BM , Trella J . Carnage interrupted: An analysis of fifteen terrorist plots against public surface transportation . San José : Mineta Transportation Institute, College of Business, San José State University ; 2012 .

O’Neill C , Robinson AM , Ungleton S . Mitigating the effects of firebombs and blast attacks on metro systems . Procedia Soc Behav Sci . 2012 ; 48 : 3518 - 27 .

Kaplan DE . Aum Shinrikyo (1995) . In: Tucker JB , editor . Toxic terror. Assessing terrorist use of chemical and biological weapons . Cambridge : Monterey Institute of International Studies, MIT Press ; 2000 .

Strandberg V . Preparing and responding to mass-casualty terrorist attacks -a comparative analysis of the response to five terrorist attacks targeting rail bound traffic . Swedish National Conference on Peace and Conflict . Gothenburg ; 14–15 June 2012 . https://www.ifv.nl/kenni splein/Pagin as/Prepa ring- and- Respo nding- to- Mass- Casua lty- Terro rist- Attac ks. aspx https://www.ifv.nl/kenni splein/Pagin as/Prepa ring- and- Respo nding- to- Mass- Casua lty- Terro rist- Attac ks. aspx . Accessed 6 June 2020 .

Chalk P , Hoffman B , Reville R , Kasupski AB . Trends in terrorism. Threats to the United States and the future of the terrorism Risk Insurance Act. The RAND Center for Terrorism Risk Management Policy . Santa Monica CA Arlington VA Pittsburg PA : The RAND Corporation ; 2005 . http://www.rand.org/pubs/monog raphs/2005/ RAND_ MG393. pdf http://www.rand.org/pubs/monog raphs/2005/ RAND_ MG393. pdf . Accessed 10 Jan 2021 .

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) . The radiological accident in Goiânia . Vienna : International Atomic Energy Agency ; 1988 .

Belanger R , Buckley DW , Swenson JB . Environmental assessment of ionization chamber smoke detectors containing Am-241. Prepared for Division of Fuel Cycle and Material Safety Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards.U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. NRC-02-78-045 . La Jolla : Science Applications Inc ; 1979 .

Autorité de Sureté Nucléaire (ASN) . Guide national. Intervention médicale en cas d´évènement nucléaire ou radiologique. Version V 3.6 . Paris : Autorité de Sureté Nucléaire ; 2008 . https://professionnels.asn.fr/Installations-nucleaires/Guides-de-l-ASN-domaine-des-dechets-radioactifs-et-du-demantelement/Guide-national-d-intervention-medicaleen-cas-d-evenement-nucle aire-ou-radiologique https://professionnels.asn.fr/Installations-nucleaires/Guides-de-l-ASN-domaine-des-dechets-radioactifs-et-du-demantelement/Guide-national-d-intervention-medicaleen-cas-d-evenement-nucle aire-ou-radiologique . Accessed 10 Jan 2021 .

Andersson KG , Mikkelsen T , Astrup P , Thykier-Nielsen S , Jacobsen LH , Hoe SC , et al . Requirements for estimation of doses from contaminants dispersed by a “dirty bomb” explosion in an urban area . J Environ Radioact . 2009 ; 100 ( 12 ): 1005 - 11 .

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) . Population monitoring and radionuclide decorporation following a radiological or nuclear accident . Bethesda : National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements ; 2010 .

Eason E . Americium Smoke Detectors. Submitted as coursework for Physics 241 , Stanford University ; 2011 . http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2011/ph241/eason1/ http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2011/ph241/eason1/ . Accessed 12 March 2021 .

Haines JR . “Dirty bomb”: Reason to worry? Explosive radiological dispersal devices and the distribution of dangerous radiological material worldwide . Philadelphia PA : Foreign Policy Research Institute (FPRI) ; 2014 . https://www.fpri.org/article/2014/07/dirty- bombs-reason- toworry/ https://www.fpri.org/article/2014/07/dirty- bombs-reason- toworry/ .Accessed 15 Nov 2020 .

Connell LW . Dirty bomb risk and impact. Technical report SAND2017–9121R . Albuquerque NM : Sandia National Laboratories ; 2017 . https://prod-ng.sandia.gov/techlib-noauth/access-control.cgi/2017/179121r.pdf https://prod-ng.sandia.gov/techlib-noauth/access-control.cgi/2017/179121r.pdf . Accessed 12 Nov 2020 .

Homeland Security Council (HSC) . Radiological attack – Radiological dispersal devices, Scenario 11 . In: HSC Planning scenarios. Executive summaries. Version 2.0 ; 2004 . http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/report/2004/hsc-planning-scenarios-jul04_ execsum.pdf http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/report/2004/hsc-planning-scenarios-jul04_ execsum.pdf . Accessed 10 June 2020 .

Rump A , Stricklin D , Lamkowski A , Eder S , Abend M , Port M . Analysis of the antidote requirements and outcomes of different radionuclide decorporation strategies for a scenario of a “dirty bomb” attack . Am J Disaster Med . 2017 ; 12 ( 4 ): 227 - 41 .

Rump A , Ostheim P , Eder S , Hermann C , Abend M , Port M . Preparing for a “dirty bomb” attack: the optimum mix of medical countermeasure resources . Mil Med Res . 2021 ; 8 ( 1 ): 3 .

Abdul-Karim N . The spatial distribution of post-blast condensed phase explosive residues . Doctor of Philosophy thesis . London : University College London ; 2015 .

Institute of Medicine (IOM) . Gulf War and health, volume 9: Long-term effects of blast exposures . Washington : National Academies Press ; 2014 .

Sharon A , Halevy I , Sattinger D , Admon U , Banaim P , Yaar I , Krantz L . Post blast nuclear forensics of a radiological dispersion device scene . 44th Journées des Actinides and 10th SPCA; 2014. Scientific Programm and Abstracts, G – Nuclear forensics I, G3 . https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:46136426 https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:46136426 . Accessed 3 May 2020 .

Sharon A , Halevy I , Krantz L , Sattinger D , Banaim P , Yaar I . High explosive radiological dispersion device: Time and distance multiscale study . 44th Journées des Actinides and 10th SPCA; 2014. Scientific Programm and Abstracts, O-Forensics, O2–1 . https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCo llectionStore/_Public/46/136/46136462.pdf?r=1&r=1 https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCo llectionStore/_Public/46/136/46136462.pdf?r=1&r=1 . Accessed 3 May 2020 .

Wingstedt EMM , Fossum HE , Reif BAP . Simulation of bomb residue deposition following the Oslo bombing July 22, 2011. FFI-rapport 2012/01836 . Kjeller : Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI) ; 2012 .

Sharon A , Halevy I , Sattinger D , Yaar I . Cloud rise model for radiological dispersal devices events . Atm Environ . 2012 ; 54 : 603 - 10 .

Di Giovanni D , Marchi F , Latini G , Carestia M , Malizia A , Gelfusa M , et al . Two realistic scenarios of intentional release of radionuclides (Cs-137, Sr-90) - the use of the HotSpot code to forecast contamination extent . WSEAS Trans Environ Dev . 2014 ; 10 : 106 - 22 .

Homann SG , Aluzzi F . HotSpot Health Physics Codes Version 3.0 User’s Guide . Livermore CA : National Atmospheric Release Advisory Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ; 2014 . https://narac.llnl.gov/content/assets/docs/HotSpot-UserGuide-3-0.pdf https://narac.llnl.gov/content/assets/docs/HotSpot-UserGuide-3-0.pdf . Accessed 12 March 2021 .

Rolph GD , Ngan F , Draxler RR . Modeling the fallout from stabilized nuclear clouds using the HYSPLIT atmospheric dispersion model . J Environm Radioact . 2014 ; 136 : 41 - 55 .

Bartnicki J , Saltbones J . Modelling atmospheric dispersion of radioactive debris released in case of a nuclear explosion using the Norwegian SNAP model . Croat Meteorol J . 2008 ; 43 : 111 - 5 .

Persson C , Rodhe H , De Geer LE . The Chernobyl accident: a meteorological analysis of how radionuclides reached and were deposited in Sweden . Ambio . 1987 ; 16 ( 1 ): 20 - 31 .

National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians (NAEMT) . PHTLS. Prehospital Trauma Life Support . Burlington : Jones & Bartlett Learning ; 2011 .

Glastone S , Dolan PJ . The effects of nuclear weapons . Washington : US Department of Defense and US Department of Energy ; 1977 .

Chukwu-Lobelu R , Appukuttan A , Edwards DS , Patel HDL . Burn injuries from the London suicide bombings: a new classification of blast-related thermal injuries . Ann Burns Fire Disasters . 2017 ; 30 ( 4 ): 256 - 60 .

Harwell CC . Experiences and extrapolations from Hiroshima and Nagasaki . In: Harwell MA , Hutchinson TE , editors . Environmental consequences of nuclear war volume II: ecological and agricultural effects . New York : Wiley ; 1985 . p. 427 – 67 .

Simon SL , Bouville A , Land CE . Fallout from nuclear weapon tests and cancer risks . Am Sci . 2006 ; 94 ( 1 ): 48 - 57 .

Imanaka T . Casualties and radiation dosimetry of the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . In: Cigna AA , Durante M , editors . Radiation risk estimates in normal and emergency situations . Berlin : Springer in cooperation with NATO Public Diplomacy Division ; 2006 . p. 149 – 56 .

Frykberg ER , Tepas JJ . Terrorist bombings. Lessons learned from Belfast to Beirut . Ann Surg . 1988 ; 208 ( 5 ): 569 - 76 .

Sobrino J , Shafi S . Timing and causes of death after injuries . Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) . 2013 ; 26 ( 2 ): 120 - 3 .

Gofrit ON , Leibovici D , Shapira SC , Shemer J , Stein M , Michaelson M . The trimodal death distribution of trauma victims: Military experience from the Lebanon War . Mil Med . 1997 ; 162 ( 1 ): 24 - 6 .

Tzur T , Eldad A . Terror-inflicted burn injury . In: Shapira SC , Hammond JS , Cole LA , editors . Essentials of terror medicine . New York : Springer ; 2009 . p. 299 – 311 .

Yan TT , Lin GA , Wang MJ , Lamkowski A , Port M , Rump A . Pharmacological treatment of inhalation injury after nuclear or radiological incidents: the Chinese and German approach . Mil Med Res . 2019 ; 6 : 10 .

Flynn DF , Goans RE . Nuclear terrorism: triage and medical management of radiation and combined-injury casualties . Surg Clin N Am . 2006 ; 86 ( 3 ): 601 - 36 .

Flynn DF , Goans RE . Triage and treatment of radiation and combined injury mass casualties . In: Lenhart ME , Mickelson AB , editors. Medical consequences of radiological and nuclear weapons . Falls Church : Office of the Surgeon General United States Army and Borden Institute ; 2012 . p. 39 – 71 .

Rump A . Combination injuries in medical NR-protection: priority-oriented treatment principles (Kombinationsverletzungen im Medizinischen A-Schutz: Prioritäten-orientierte Behandlungsgrundsätze) . Wehrmed Mschr . 2014 ; 58 ( 5 ): 146 - 51 .

Rump A , Becker B , Eder S , Lamkowski A , Abend M , Port M . Medical management of victims contaminated with radionuclides after a “dirty bomb” attack . Mil Med Res . 2018 ; 5 : 27 .

Harper FT , Musolino SV , Wente WB . Realistic radiological dispersal device hazard boundaries and ramifications for early consequence management decisions . Health Phys . 2007 ; 93 ( 1 ): 1 - 16 .

Andersson KG , Mikkelsen T , Astrup P , Thykier-Nielsen S , Jacobsen LH , Schou-Jensen L , et al . Estimation of health hazards resulting from a radiological terrorist attack in a city . Radiat Prot Dosimetry . 2008 ; 131 ( 3 ): 297 - 307 .

Pinnick RG , Fernandez G , Hinds BD . Explosion dust particle size measurements . Appl Opt . 1983 ; 22 ( 1 ): 95 - 102 .

Eriksson M . On weapons plutonium in the Artic environment (Thule, Greenland). Riso report Riso-R-1321 . Denmark : Riso National Laboratory ; 2002 .

Hug O . Medizinische Strahlenkunde . Berlin : Springer ; 1974 .

Ozasa K , Shimizu Y , Suyama A , Kasagi F , Soda M , Grant EJ , et al . Studies of the mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 14, 1950–2003. An overview of cancer and noncancer diseases . Radiat Res . 2012 ; 177 ( 3 ): 229 - 43 .

Abend M . Health risks from low radiation doses. Gene expression studies in radiation-exposed cohorts (Risiko gesundheitlicher Schäden niedriger Strahlendosen). Genexpressionsunter-suchungenan strahlen exponierten Kohorten . Wehrmed Mschr . 2014 ; 58 ( 5 ): 173 - 7 .

Preston DL , Shimizu Y , Pierce DA , Suyama A , Mabuchi K . Studies of mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 13: solid cancer and noncancer disease mortality: 1950–1997 . Radiat Res . 2003 ; 160 ( 4 ): 381 - 407 .

Richardson D , Sugiyama H , Nishi N , Sakata R , Shimizu Y , Grant EJ , et al . Ionizing radiation and leukemia mortality among Japanese atomic bomb survivors, 1950–2000 . Radiat Res . 2009 ; 172 ( 3 ): 368 - 82 .

Wong FL , Yamada M , Sasaki H , Kodama K , Akiba S , Shimaoka K , et al . Noncancer disease incidence in the atomic bomb survivors: 1958–1986 . Radiat Res . 1993 ; 135 ( 3 ): 418 - 30 .

Kodama K , Fujiwara S , Yamada M , Kasag F , Shimizu Y , Shigematsu I . Profiles of non-cancer diseases in atomic bomb survivors . World Health Stat Q . 1996 ; 49 ( 1 ): 7 - 16 .

Shimizu Y , Pierce DA , Preston DL , Mabuchi K . Studies of the mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 12, part II. Noncancer mortality: 1950–1990 . Radiat Res . 1999 ; 152 ( 4 ): 374 - 89 .

Vrijheid M , Cardis E , Ashmore P , Auvinen A , Bae JM , Engels H , et al . Mortality from diseases other than cancer following low doses of ionizing radiation results from the 15-Country Study of nuclear industry workers . Int J Epidemiol . 2007 ; 36 ( 5 ): 1126 - 35 .

Little MP . A review of non-cancer effects, especially circulatory and occular diseases . Radiat Environ Biophys . 2013 ; 52 ( 4 ): 435 - 49 .

National Research Council of the National Academies . Health risks from exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation . Washington DC : The National Academies Press ; 2006 . https://www.nap.edu/read/11340/chapter/7 https://www.nap.edu/read/11340/chapter/7 . Accessed 17 March 2021 .

Rump A , Lamkowski A , Eder S , Abend M , Port M . Benefits and limits of internal dosimetry after radiation accidents (Nutzen und Grenzen der internen Dosimetrie nach Strahlenunfällen) . Notfall Rettmed . 2016 ; 19 : 115 - 21 .

Oka T . Application of cost-benefit analysis to the regulation of foodstuffs contaminated with radioactive substances . Jpn J Health Phys . 2012 ; 47 ( 3 ): 181 - 8 .

Rump A , Stricklin D , Lamkowski A , Eder S , Port M . Benefit-cost analysis of radiocesium decorporation by a Prussian Blue treatment and stockpiling . Drug Res . 2018 ; 68 ( 2 ): 89 - 99 .

Ménétrier F , Grappin L , Raynaud P , Courtay C , Wood R , Joussineau S , et al . Treatment of accidental intakes of plutonium and americium: Guidance notes . Appl Radiat Isot . 2005 ; 62 ( 6 ): 829 - 46 .

Rump A , Stricklin D , Lamkowski A , Eder S , Abend M , Port M . Reconsidering current decorporation strategies after incorporation of radionuclides . Health Phys . 2016 ; 111 ( 2 ): 201 - 8 .

Rump A , Stricklin D , Lamkowski A , Eder S , Abend M , Port M . The impact of time on decorporation efficacy after a “dirty bomb” attack studied by simulation . Drug Res . 2016 ; 66 ( 11 ): 607 - 13 .

Rump A , Stricklin D , Lamkowski A , Eder S , Abend M , Port M . The incorporation of radionuclides after wounding by a “dirty bomb”: The impact of time for decorporation efficacy and a model for cases of disseminated fragmentation wounds . Adv Wound Care . 2017 ; 6 ( 1 ): 1 - 9 .

Altagracia-Martinez M , Kravzov-Jinich J , Martínez-Núnez JM , Ríos-Castaneda C , López-Naranjo F . Prussian blue as an antidote for radioactive thallium and cesium poisoning . Orphan Drugs Res Rev . 2012 ; 2 : 13 - 21 .

Melo DR , Lipsztein JL , Leggett R , Bertelli L , Guilmette R . Efficacy of Prussian blue on 137 Cs decorporation therapy . Health Phys . 2014 ; 106 ( 5 ): 592 - 7 .

Leiterer A , Bardot I , Ménétrier F , Bardot S , Grémy O , Bérard P , et al . Medical countermeasures after a radiological event: an update from the CATO project . Int J Radiat Biol . 2014 ; 90 ( 11 ): 1043 - 7 .

Hall EJ , Giaccia AJ . Radiobiology for the radiologist . Philadelphia Blatimore New York London Buenos Aires Hongkong Sydney Tokyo : Wolters Kluver ; 2019 .

Roessler G . Why Po-210? Health Phys News . 2007 ; 35 ( 2 ): 1 - 9 . https://hps.org/documents/polonium_210_story.pdf https://hps.org/documents/polonium_210_story.pdf .Accessed 30 July 2021 .

Weickhardt U . Radiation accidents (Der Strahlenunfall). Information leaflet on the treatment of radiation injuries . Lucerne : Swiss Accident Insurance Institute for Occupational Medicine ; 2001 .

Rääf CL , Falk R , Lauridsen B , Rahola T , Skuterud L , Soogard-Hansen S . Human metabolism of caesium . Roskilde, Denmark : Department of Radiation physics in Malmö, Lund University (SE), Swedish Radiation Protection Authority (SE), Risø National Laboratory (DK), STUK- Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (FI), NRPA-Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority (NO) ; 2006 .

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) . Management of spent high activity radioactive sources (SHARS). IAEA-TECDOC-1301 . Vienna : International Atomic Energy Agency ; 2002 .

Münchner Verkehrsgesellschaft (MVG) . Our vehicles (Unsere Fahrzeuge). N.D . https://www.mvg.de/ueber/das-unternehmen/fahrzeuge.html https://www.mvg.de/ueber/das-unternehmen/fahrzeuge.html . Accessed 12 Jan 2021 .

Heffter JL . ARL Fallout Prediction Technique. ESSA Technical Memo. ERLTM-ARL13 . Silver Spring : NOAA/Air Resources Laboratory ; 1969 . http://www.arl.noaa.gov/TechMemos.php http://www.arl.noaa.gov/TechMemos.php .Accessed 15 Nov 2020 .

Giardina M , Buffa P . A new approach for modeling dry deposition velocity of particles . Atmos Environm . 2018 ; 180 : 11 - 22 .

Birchall A , Puncher M , Marsh JW , Davis K , Bailey MR , Jarvis NS , et al . IMBA Professional Plus: a flexible approach to internal dosimetry . Radiat Prot Dosimetry . 2007 ; 125 ( 1–4 ): 194 - 7 .

Rump A , Eder S , Lamkowski A , Hermann C , Abend M , Port M . A quantitative comparison of the chemo- and radiotoxicity of uranium at different enrichment grades . Toxicol Lett . 2019 ; 313 : 159 - 68 .

US Department of Energy . External dose rate conversion factors for calculation of dose to the public . Washington : U.S. Department of Energy, Assistant Secretary for Environment, Office of Environmental Guidance ; 1988 .

Gómez AM , Domínguez CJ , Pedrueza CI , Calvente RR , Lillo VM , Canas JM . Management and analysis of out-of-hospital health-related responses to simultaneous railway explosions in Madrid . Spain Eur J Emerg Med . 2007 ; 14 ( 5 ): 247 - 55 .

Shapira SC , Hammond JS , Cole LA . Introduction to terror medicine . In: Shapira SC , Hammond JS , Cole LA , editors . Essentials of terror medicine . New York : Springer ; 2009 . p. 3 – 12 .

Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (BUMED) . Initial management of irradiated or radioactively contaminated personnel . Washington : Department of the Navy, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery ; 2003 .

Port M , Abend M . Clinical triage of radiation casualties—the hematological module of the Bundeswehr Institute of Radiobiology . Radiat Prot Dosimetry . 2018 ; 182 ( 1 ): 90 - 2 .

Perez M , Carr Z . Development of stockpiles for radiation emergencies. Report of the Radio-Nuclear Working Group. WHO consultation meeting on development of stockpiles for radiation and chemical emergencies . Geneva : World Health Organization ; 2007 .

Buddemeier BR . Nuclear detonation fallout: Key considerations for internal exposure and population monitoring. Report LLNL-TR-754319. Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 . Livermore : Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ; 2018 .

Simon SL , Bouville A , Land CE , Beck HL . Radiation doses and cancer risks in the Marshall Islands associated with exposure to radioactive faaout from Bikini and Enewetak nuclear weapons tests: summary . Health Phys . 2010 ; 99 ( 2 ): 105 - 23 .

Kumatori T , Ishihara T , Ueda T , Miyoshi K . Medical survey of Japanese exposed to fall-out radiation in 1954. A report after 10 years . Chiba : National Institute of Radiological Sciences ; 1965 .

Heath MA . Radiation stigma, mental health and marriage discrimination: the social side effects of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster . Master of Art thesis . Department of International Studies and Graduate School of the University of Oregon ; 2013 .

Liutsko L , Oughtond D , Sarukhana A , Cardisa E; SHAMISEN Consortium . The SHAMISEN Recommendations on preparedness and health surveillance of populations affected by a radiation accident . Environ Int . 2021 ; 146 : 106278 .

World Health Organization (WHO) . Mass casualty management systems. Strategies and guidelines for building health sector capacity . Geneva : World Health Organization ; 2007 .

Runyan CW . Using the Haddon matrix: introducing the third dimension . Inj Prev . 1998 ; 4 ( 4 ): 302 - 7 .

Runyan CW . Introduction: Back to the future – revisiting Haddon’s conceptualization of injury epidemiology and prevention . Epidemiol Rev . 2003 ; 25 : 60 - 4 .

Van de Voorde P , Monsieur KG , Perkins GD , Castren M . Looking over the wall: using a Haddon matrix to guide public policy making on the problem of sudden cardiac arrest . Resuscitation . 2014 ; 85 ( 5 ): 602 - 5 .

Xiong L , Ball M , Bruck D . Utilization of the Haddon matrix to organize factors of survived accidental residential fires: frequencies for human, agent, and environment-related variables . Fire Saf Sci . 2014 ; 11 ( 5 ): 1049 - 62 .

Barnett DJ , Balicer RD , Blodgett D , Fews AL , Parker CL , Links JM . The application of the Haddon matrix to public health readiness and response planning . Environm Health Perspect . 2005 ; 113 ( 5 ): 561 - 6 .

Yan TC , Yu M . Using the Haddon matrix to explore medical response strategies for terrorist subway bombings . Mil Med Res . 2019 ; 6 ( 1 ): 18 .

浏览量

Downloads

CSCD

文章被引用时，请邮件提醒。

Submit

工具集

关联资源

Preparing for a "dirty bomb" attack: The optimum mix of medical countermeasure resources

杭州湾大桥梁上运梁过程仿真分析

既有线钢桁梁桥横向刚度加固技术

基于图像识别的轮轨冲角测量系统研究

渝怀线武隆隧道岩溶涌水量计算新方法